星空影视

The period of the Early Renaissance began in Florence, one of the individual city-states in Italy at that time. Although the church was still powerful, Florence was ruled by wealthy merchants and bankers, and families like the Medici Family became great patrons of the arts. Florence was also a republic which brought with it a greater sense of personal liberty. Florentine citizens viewed themselves as sentient beings open to new ways of thinking and they were quick to embrace a new philosophy sweeping Italy called Humanism.

Florentine artists like Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Masaccio turned away from the two-dimensional iconographic style of the Gothic and Romanesque periods by embracing new mathematical principles. They used Humanist developments to create more realistic foreshortening and trompe l鈥檕eil (visual illusion) techniques. Humanism did not, however, signal the end of religion. On the contrary, Humanists were still devoted to Christianity, but painters and sculptors rendered their holy figures and biblical narratives with a new awareness of picture perspective and anatomical detail that moved away from the existing, more idealized, 鈥渇lat鈥�, art. The Renaissance - meaning simply, rebirth - was a way, as it were, of going 鈥渂ack to the future鈥� by revising Classical art.

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Filippo Brunelleschi

The High Renaissance denotes the short period in art history during which the Renaissance ideals of Humanism and individualism reached their apex. It is principally associated with three geniuses 鈥� the 鈥渉oly trinity鈥� as they are sometimes called 鈥� Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. The High Renaissance also marks a shift from Florence to Rome (mostly through the influence of Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X) as Italy鈥檚 new cultural capital.

Between them, Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael perfected naturalistic techniques of perspective, trompe l鈥檕eil, foreshortening, sfumato, and quadratura, that brought a heightened sense of harmony and symmetrical beauty to the already timeless values of Roman and Greek art. The High Renaissance is associated with the concept of the 鈥淩enaissance Man鈥� 鈥� a man of many talents: a master of the arts, of mathematics, and engineering - and the Renaissance Man could achieve these heights because he had been touched by the hand of God himself (as Michelangelo鈥檚 The Creation of Adam illustrates so impressively).

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The Northern Renaissance artists adapted the naturalistic and linear perspectives of their Italian counterparts in a style that subdued the former鈥檚 unfettered piety and idealized beauty. Inspired by the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648), artists formally challenged the absolutism of the Catholic Church with the Northern artists (drawn from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the Low Countries) favoring portraits and humble scenes of everyday life 鈥� genre painting as it became known - that carried a more understated moral message.

The聽Northern Renaissance聽combined elements of the Late Gothic style with the ideology of the Protestant聽Reformation. The art of the Reformation was based on the principle of the 鈥渧ernacular鈥� which promoted the idea that ordinary people, most of whom were illiterate, could communicate directly with God through prayer and devotion rather than rely on papal messengers to mediate sacred scripture (which was written in Latin). Artists favored common scenes and subjects, presenting familiar people, objects, and landscapes. Stylistically, art of the Northern Renaissance retained a Gothic sensibility through its preference for more somber and psychologically dark tones. It was also in the North that printmaking flourished following the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in 1450. The Gutenberg Press allowed for mass-produced engravings and simple woodblock prints which were widely disseminated and easily understood by those who had not learned to read.

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The Mannerist style originated in Florence and Rome but quickly caught on, spreading throughout Italy, and then across much of central and northern Europe. Following the standard of 鈥減erfect beauty鈥� achieved by the High Renaissance masters (Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael), Mannerists began to question the idea that man was the center of the universe and sought to use art to focus on matters of aesthetics, and to create works that privileged the emotions over the intellect.

Mannerist art is often called 鈥渋rrational鈥� because of its peculiar juxtaposition of classical and imaginary tropes, and its unnatural color schemes. The strong emphasis placed on picture perspective by their predecessors, is replaced with a flattened picture plane that supports a preference for elegant decorative patterns. Mythological and allegorical images, often with erotic undertones, gained prominence too. The Mannerist emphasis on style and technique, best characterized by their iconic elongated 鈥渟erpentine鈥� figures, produced bizarre, proportionally impossible, compositions that gave priority to the decorative. High Mannerism, meanwhile, is considered a 鈥渃ourtly鈥� Mannerist style, produced specifically for powerful rulers and the aristocracy.

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Following Mannerism, the Catholic Church in Rome focused its efforts on re-asserting its importance and authority. The church pushed artists to emphasize drama and grandeur in religious images in line with the so-called 鈥淐atholic Counter-Reformation Act鈥�. Baroque art had a propagandist aspect that carried across Europe, and to the newly colonized regions around the globe where missionaries arrived to convert 鈥減rimitive鈥� peoples to Catholicism.

Proponents of Baroque art wanted artists to make the beliefs and teachings of the Catholic church easily accessible and strongly felt by all. Art and architecture of the time was designed to bring 鈥渉eaven down to earth鈥� by immersing viewers in dramatic and emotionally moving scenes in which lighting played a central role. Caravaggio, for example, took chiaroscuro to new limits, developing what is known as tenebrism, using intense and focused lighting to spotlight certain elements of dark atmospheric scenes. Architects like Gian Lorenzo Bernini, meanwhile, were called upon to reshape the Roman cityscape. His St. Peter鈥檚 Square (leading to St. Peter鈥檚 Basilica) is circled with colonnades that, through a Baroque accent on spectacle and illusion, was able to convey the impression that the public was being enfolded into the protective arms of the Catholic Church.

/movement/baroque-art-and-architecture/

The Dutch Golden Age is the most celebrated period in Dutch art (although many have recently objected to the term as it does not reflect the experience of the whole population during the seventeenth century). After the Dutch Republic gained independence from Spain in 1581, the new liberal nation, which benefitted from an influx of Jewish and Protestant refugees fleeing the Catholic rule of the neighboring Habsburg territories, flourished economically, scientifically, and culturally, leading to great patronage of art by the expanding middle and merchant classes.

The preferred subject matter of the Dutch Golden age was secular (rather than religious) with artists striving to depict people, places, and objects with a high degree of naturalistic accuracy. Still lifes were popular, particularly floral paintings, as were vanitas (that conveyed moralizing messages about the fleetingness of human life), ontbijtjes or 鈥渂reakfast pieces鈥�, and Pronkstilleven (鈥渟umptuous鈥�) images of lavish feasts. Portraiture was also popular with individuals and groups able to demonstrate their wealth and status. Local landscapes and cityscapes reflected the nation鈥檚 new sense of pride, meanwhile, and genre paintings (such as domestic interiors and tavern scenes (often with moralizing messages) rose in popularity. Printmaking also became a powerful tool in the expression of a definitively Protestant national identity.

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Rococo art and interior design originated in eighteenth century France but soon spread throughout Europe, becoming especially popular in Italy, Austria, Germany, and Russia. Sometimes referred to as 鈥淟ate Baroque鈥�, it is associated initially with the reign of Louis XIV (the 鈥淪un King鈥�) but really comes into its own following his death in 1715 when the French aristocracy moved out of the King鈥檚 Baroque palace at Versailles into their own Parisian mansions which they filled with more genteel and playful art and furnishings.

Rococo paintings were typically commissioned by wealthy patrons, often of noble or royal lineage, who shared a new taste for gaiety and frivolity in art. Rococo art typically featured elegant pastoral Arcadian landscapes, with Jean Antoine Watteau鈥檚 f锚te galante images of outdoor pastimes and courtships, very often carrying erotic overtones, typifying the movement. Portraiture, which portrayed subjects as illustrious historical and allegorical figures, appealed to the heightened vanity of the sitter, too. The Rococo aesthetic carried over into interior design where ostentatious soft furnishing items filled the newly invented salon - a room used for the explicit purpose of entertaining.

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Neoclassicism was born of the period of the Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that placed science, reason, and democratic values above all else. Aesthetically, Neoclassicism took its lead from the age of antiquity, and was directly influenced by the archaeological excavations of the Italian cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (between 1738-48). In addition to the architecture, archaeologists uncovered a series of murals that married a simple linear approach to drawing with clearly defined areas of color. The find prompted Neoclassical artists and architects in industrial Europe and North America to assimilate these lessons.

Dismissing the extravagances and frivolities of the Baroque and Rococo styles, Neoclassical artists turned back to the age of antiquity as a way of repeating its intellectual, scientific, social, and moral values. Simplicity, restraint, harmony, and order returned as the highest virtues in art. Generally divided into early and late periods, early Neoclassical artists, such as Anton Raphael Mengs and Benjamin West, painted classically posed figurative compositions that replicated ancient sculptures and vase paintings; the later period, exemplified by Jacques-Louis David, and his erstwhile pupil, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, marked a shift towards a more monumental Neoclassical style. The latter was actively promoted by the French Royal Academy of Art and Sculpture which positioned history painting, and its focus on religious and mythological scenes, above portraiture, landscapes, and still lifes.

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Romanticism was a reaction against Neoclassicism and Enlightenment thinking. Tired of rationalism and order, Romantics, who spread their influence throughout all spheres of the arts and humanities, favored a highly personal and dramatic response to their immediate environment and circumstances (natural or urban). It amounted to a full U-turn in thinking (after Neoclassicism) that allowed emotions and imagination to dominate reason. Romantics then abandoned formal classical rules (as inculcated by state sponsored Academies) in favor of a more subjective and expressive art that celebrated the virtues of creativity and individualism.

Rejecting the sober and technical, Romantic artists called on their imaginations for inspiration. Nature was seen as the key to unlocking man鈥檚 idealized past, and artists like Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable sought to represent 鈥�the Sublime鈥� in art. It was a term given to land and seascapes that captured the awesome, and at times terrifying, power of the natural world. However, the high drama of Romanticism did not restrict itself to a single genre. Others, such as Spaniard Francisco Goya, turned inward, seeking to represent the inexplicable and ineffable forces that drive man, while French artists, such as Eug猫ne Delacroix and Th茅odore G茅ricault, were working in the Romantic idiom as a way of dramatizing political themes of human equality and social justice. Romantic art is also associated with exoticized scenes of Middle Eastern culture, known as Orientalism, while in architecture, expressive Oriental and Gothic 鈥渞evival鈥� styles became fashionable.

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Caspar David Friedrich

As a self-defined movement in art and literature, Realism came into its own in France after the Revolution of 1848 (and during the Second Empire under Napoleon III). Realism rejected Neoclassicism and Romanticism in favor of an art that represented the French landscape and its workers; subject matter that had been all but forgotten or ignored by the French art establishment. There was a strong political bias to Realism that was in keeping with the literature of 脡mile Zola, Honor茅 de Balzac, and Gustave Flaubert, and accorded with Pierre Proudhon鈥檚 socialist philosophies and Karl Marx鈥檚聽Communist Manifesto.

Realism put in place the foundations for Impressionism and the birth proper of modern art. Doing away with idealized imagery, Realist artists, chief amongst whom was Gustave Courbet, were committed to representing everyday life but with little or no aesthetic embellishment. By removing any sentimentality from art, Realists pursued a route to an authentically democratic art. They painted the downtrodden and marginalized in society (including prostitutes and rural laborers), resulting in images that were initially rejected as 鈥渦gly鈥� or 鈥渦npleasant鈥�. Linear perspective and accurate proportions were dismissed in favor of flattened compositions while brushwork was ragged and visible. In this way, Realists challenged timeless beliefs about what constitutes aesthetic beauty. In the 1850-51 Salon, Courbet exhibited Burial at Ornans (1849) and the Stone Breakers (1849). Monumental in scale, and crude (by Academy standards) in execution, the paintings shocked both the critics and the public, who were not accustomed to, nor yet ready for, such blunt representations of peasant life.

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The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood offered the first serious challenge to the British Royal Academy and its preference for History Painting. Spurning art that took its aesthetic and philosophical lead from the High Renaissance, the Pre-Raphaelites (as their name indicates) produced art based on principles that pre-dated Raphael. They drew their inspiration rather from medieval craftspeople/artists who they believed created a true synthesis between art and life.

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood adhered to a set of puritanical and aesthetic standards with artworks based on mythical and religious parables, all executed with a meticulous attention to detail. They rejected picture perspective in favor of flatter images, but above all, perhaps, the Pre-Raphaelites, who often worked en plein air, embraced the tenets of Naturalism with carefully studied representations of nature (including all its imperfections). William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais contested not just the visual standards of the Victorian era, but also its dubious morality. For his part, Dante Gabriel Rossetti adopted the aesthetic codes of the Brotherhood but veered from the 鈥減ath of righteousness鈥� by introducing an element of lasciviousness into his work. The Brotherhood鈥檚 revival of medieval styles, stories, and methods of production had a profound influence on the development of the Arts and Crafts Movement.

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Dante Gabriel Rossetti

John Everett Millais

William Holman Hunt

This loosely associated group of artists met in and around the village of Barbizon, near the fabled forest of Fontainebleau (nominated an official 鈥渁rtistic reserve鈥� from 1874), which was easily accessible from Paris following the newly built Lyon railway. The area became a popular destination for artistic collaboration and experimentation, at a time when the looming atmosphere of revolution led many artists to escape the city. Although its members adopted different approaches, the Barbizon School can take credit for bringing a new level of credibility to landscape painting.

With the shared aim of presenting the natural world precisely and faithfully, artists such as Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Theodore Rousseau effectively elevated landscape painting from its supporting role in historical and mythological scenes. In fact, the Barbizons (with the notable exception of Jean-Fran莽ois Millet) mostly ignored narrative all together in favor of art that represented a direct rendering of the natural world that remained true to the colors and forms of the countryside. The artists, who embraced the practice of painting en plein air, experimented with completing entire paintings in single sittings, often applying wet paint on wet paint, using looser brushwork, and capturing the changing impact of natural lighting on the land. Many Impressionist painters were influenced by the Barbizon School.

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The Arts & Crafts Movement took hold in Britain and North America. In Britain the movement was a negative reaction against the march of industrialization, while America was more open to the benefits of the machine age. The movement as a whole, however, was united in its belief in a refined decorative design aesthetic that would contribute to a return to a simpler, more idyllic, way of modern life.

Closely related to the Aesthetic Movement, and a direct descendant of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, the Arts & Crafts Movement championed the use of high-quality natural materials and traditional handicraft methods, such as calligraphy, textiles, and stained glass. The focus was on individual decorative designs, such as wallpaper with organic and floral patterns, and architecture that built using brick. The Arts and Crafts ethos was driven by the writer and critic John Ruskin and the textile designer, poet, and novelist William Morris (Englishmen who deplored mass-production) and they were joined by noted craftsmen such as C. R. Ashbee, Walter Crane, and A. H. Mackmurdo, whose works provided a template for the Art Nouveau and Art Deco movements.

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This French painting movement began when avant-garde artists including Cézanne, Renoir, and Manet scandalized the art world after being refused admission to the official art salon.

Turning away from the stress on clarity of form and realistic rendering, the French Impressionists had an interest in how visual perception was based in fleeting optical impressions. They sought new ways to capture light and movement, atmosphere, and weather. They loosened their brushwork and lightened their palettes to include pure, intense colors 鈥� especially in their landscapes. Drawn to modern life, they also painted the mid-nineteenth century changes in Paris 鈥� capturing alienation amid public spaces such as railway stations, boulevards, cafes, and cabarets.

/movement/impressionism/

Symbolism emerged in France led by artists that looked to add more personal meaning to their work.

Considered part of Post-Impressionism, Symbolist artists, writers, and musicians emphasized mystical, romantic, and expressive themes as a means of escaping contemporary moralism, rationalism, and materialism. Artists such as Edvard Munch and Gustave Moreau developed new ways to express psychological truth, giving form to the spiritual reality behind the physical world, evidenced in paintings of dream worlds, melancholy, and death.

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Emerging in Paris, Les Nabis was a cult-like group of Symbolist artists that wanted to reveal reality through the arts.

Based on the teachings of Gauguin and the Symbolists, Nabi artists such as Vuillard and Bonnard saw themselves as "seers" with the power to reveal the invisible. They believed that sounds, colors, and words had a power beyond representation. They combined Impressionist brushstrokes with vivid colors, mystical subject matter, and patterned backgrounds to emphasize the mystery of everyday life.

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The Post Impressionists were a loose group of Paris-based artists who are often viewed together because of their various reactions to the earlier Impressionism movement.

Post-Impressionists turned away from the effects of light and atmosphere to explore painting theory and the subjective artistic vision. Artists such as Gauguin and van Gogh looked to memories and emotions to explore personal ideas, while Cézanne and Seurat explored the building blocks of painting such as colors, shapes, and overall composition.

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Paul Cézanne

Vincent van Gogh

Art Nouveau dominated the decorative arts as visual artists, designers, and architects began adopting modern and naturalistic modes of decoration, as opposed to the ornateness of Victorian-era design.

Art Nouveau had a vast number of practitioners throughout Europe and went by several names such as Jugendstil and The Glasgow Style. The shared vision was to modernize decorative design using organic and geometric forms, simple floral patterns, "whiplash" curves, and angular contours. It aimed to raise the status of craft, aspiring to "total works of the arts" (Gesamtkunstwerk) 鈥� for example, to create buildings and interiors in which every element partook of the same visual vocabulary.

/movement/art-nouveau/

The Fauves were a loosely affiliated group of French painters who shared a preoccupation with expression through color and form.

The group built on Post-Impressionist experiments with paint application, subject matter, expressive line, and pure color - especially the innovations of van Gogh, Seurat, and Gauguin. Led by Matisse, The Fauves developed an anti-naturalistic style to express personal feelings towards their subjects. Formally, their work is characterized by vivid, often unmixed color, striking surface design and a bold approach to execution. A sky could be orange, a tree could be blue, and simple forms and saturated colors drew attention to the flatness of the canvas.

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Expressionism emerged simultaneously in various cities across Germany as a response to fears of a loss of authenticity and spirituality.

Reacting against Impressionism, but influenced by Symbolism, the Expressionists focused on communicating spirituality and feeling in art. Drawn simultaneously to primitivism and to modern life, they employed distorted imagery and a rich palette to convey profound emotion. Art now came from within the artist, not the external world. On the canvas, swirling, swaying, and exaggeratedly executed brushstrokes revealed turbulent inner states or the mysteries of nature. The movement also often recorded social criticism of the modern city, depicting alienated modern individuals.

/movement/expressionism/

Wassily Kandinsky

Futurism was the most important Italian avant-garde art movement of the twentieth century arising from interactions with French Cubist ideas and a general desire for progress.

Futurism celebrated advanced technology and urban modernity. Its members wished to destroy older forms of culture and to demonstrate the beauty of modern life - of the machine, speed, violence and change. Although there were some Futurist architects, most of its adherents were artists who worked in traditional media such as painting and sculpture, and in an eclectic range of styles.

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Giacomo Balla

Cubism developed in a period of rapid innovation between Picasso and Braque building upon the ideas of Cézanne.

The approach was a radical break and offered a new way of describing space, volume and mass with new pictorial devices. More generally, it pointed new paths towards abstract art, and suggested ways of describing life in the modern urban world. It abandoned perspective and realistic modeling - representing bodies in small, tilted planes, set in a shallow space. Following the examples of Picasso and Braque, the Salon Cubists used these innovations to create many interesting effects.

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The Suprematist movement grew out of Russian avant-garde ideas on the function of language and the role and limits of art.

The Suprematists, led by Kazimir Malevich reduced art to its essentials. They devised a radically abstract art of simple geometric forms. Generally expressed through painting, it emphasized the irreducible characteristics of the medium. Inspired by rational inquiry, it sometimes took on a strange, absurdist tone, although its devotion to abstraction made it sometimes quite mystical and spiritual. Driven by a goal of totally abstract art the movement searched for the 'zero degree' of painting, the point beyond which their work could not go without ceasing to be art.

/movement/suprematism/

Alexander Rodchenko

The artistic and literary movement launched in Zurich as a reaction to World War I, it quickly inspired similar groups in Hanover, Berlin, Cologne, Paris, and New York, ending with the rise of the Surrealism movement.

Dada was the first conceptual art movement invoking art as performance, art as life, and art as result of audience participation. The focus was on posing difficult questions, sometimes via new tactics such as Marcel Duchamp鈥檚 "readymades" 鈥� that forced questions about the extent of artistic creativity and the overall definition of art.

/movement/dada/

The Bauhaus art school in Weimar, Germany, was founded by Walter Gropius, and promoted a comprehensive and multi-disciplined approach to the arts, encouraging students to practice the visual arts, craft and design, architecture, industrial design, and even typography.

Following the Arts and Crafts ethos to unite fine and applied arts, creativity and manufacturing, art and industrial design, the movement put equal store in form and function, and set out to reduce decoration and frills, to rejuvenate design for everyday life. Although a formal school, the name became equated with modern German design from the early twentieth century, predating the rise of the Nazis. The Bauhaus style, aka the International Style, was promoted by Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, Josef Albers, Marcel Breuer, Paul Klee, and Wassily Kandinsky 鈥� many of whom would become influential teachers across the world.

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This movement evolved after the October Revolution of 1917, acting as a lightning rod for the artists that wanted to build a new utopian state.

Constructivism borrowed ideas from Cubism, Suprematism and Futurism, but bent them into a new approach to making objects, one which sought to replace traditional artistic concerns of composition with 'construction.' It stressed the inherent physical characteristics of materials, rather than any symbolic associations they might support. While seeking to express the dynamism of the modern world, and that of the rapidly changing Russian society, the Constructivists also hoped to develop ideas that could be put to use in mass production.

/movement/constructivism/

Aleksandr Rodchenko

Arising in Paris on some of the ideas of Dada, the Surrealists hoped to access powerful ideas by going beyond conscious thought.

Surrealism shared Dada鈥檚 anarchic rejection of bourgeois values, and called for a revolution of the mind. Influenced by Freudian theories on the unconscious, dreams, desire, and repression André Breton called on artists to bypass reason by accessing their unconscious via automatism or dreams. Each artist relied on personal recurring motifs (Dali's ants or eggs, 贰谤苍蝉迟鈥檚 bird alter ego). Surrealist works caused shock and sensation due to their content, drawing on myth, primitivism, madness, sex, and desire they intended to jolt viewers out of their comfortable notions of reality.

/movement/surrealism/

The most influential movement in post-war abstract painting, Abstract Expressionism flourished in New York, establishing America over Paris as the post-war leader of modern art.

The Abstract Expressionists such as Pollock, de Kooning, and Rothko were committed to expressing profound emotion and universal themes. Indebted to 厂耻谤谤别补濒颈蝉尘鈥檚 exploration of painting as a struggle between self-expression and the unconscious they created a new art for the post World War II world. Their art was championed for being emphatically American in spirit - monumental in scale, romantic in mood, and expressive of individual freedom.

/movement/abstract-expressionism/

Jackson Pollock

Born in New York City out of the huge popularity and academism of Abstract Expressionism, the participants of this loose movement wanted to open up the possibilities of art-making that became too stringent.

Artists such as Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg launched a radical shift in the focus of modern art - from the existential angst of the Abstract Impressionists, to focus on the audience, pop culture, and general ambiguity. Their aim was to force viewers to interact via absurd juxtapositions 鈥� taking up Dadaist Marcel Duchamp's premise that what the artist begins, the viewer completes. Neo-Dada used mass media, found objects, performance, and chance, to eliminate artistic control in favor of the viewer鈥檚 reading. They mocked and celebrated consumer culture, united abstraction and realism, and disregarded boundaries through experiments with assemblage and performances.

/movement/neo-dada/

These movements have their roots in the Dada and Constructivist movements, but finally launched at the 鈥淟e Mouvement鈥� exhibition in Paris, after which they attracted an international following.

Kinetic art 鈥� art that depends on movement for its effects, and Op art 鈥� art focused on optics and visual perceptions - were launched by artists seeking to create more interactive relationships with the viewer, and new visual experiences. They inspired new kinds of art that went beyond the boundaries of the traditional, hand-crafted, static object, encouraging the idea that the beauty of an object could be the product of optical illusions or mechanical movement.

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Alexander Calder

The name designates a trend in Abstract Expressionism, pioneered by Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Helen Frankenthaler, and Clyfford Still, seeking a modern, mythic style that removed any suggestion of illustration or the artist鈥檚 hand.

A major development in abstract painting, it was the first style to avoid the suggestion of a form or mass against a background. Instead, figure and ground are one, and the space of the picture, conceived as a field, seems to spread out beyond the edges of the canvas. Clement Greenberg put much of his critical praise into this movement, and the related Post-Painterly Abstraction movement.

/movement/color-field-painting/

Clyfford Still

The movement developed simultaneously in various global cities. Commonly associated to the New York artists Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein (and their Neo-Dada predecessors), there were crucial contributions by London's Independent Group and the German artists Sigmar Polke and Gerhard Richter.

During the post-WWII American consumer commodity boom, Pop鈥檚 visual vocabulary merged high art and popular culture, blending and elevating advertising, celebrity, and cartoons to the status of art. It was coolly ambivalent compared to 鈥榟ot鈥� emotion of the Abstract Expressionists that had gone before it. This ambivalence created a subtle commentary on the new popular cultural landscape after the difficult years of The Great Depression and war.

/movement/pop-art/

Photorealism (also known as Hyperrealism or Superrealism) was developed by a loosely affiliated group of American painters and sculptors reacting to post-war art, pop culture, and photography.

Disillusioned by concurrent trends in nonrepresentational art, artists such as Chuck Close, Richard Estes, and Ralph Goings sought to portray objects with greater visual accuracy, relying largely on photographs in their practice and often depicting American motifs in their work. More broadly, the movement complicated notions of reality by interjecting fantastical or abstracted elements into their otherwise optically precise works. Building upon the idea of Pop Art, the movement reintroduced process and planning over automatism, and craftsmanship over unconscious improvisation.

/movement/photorealism/

Minimalism was born when a loosely affiliated group of New York-based artists began to question the boundaries between multiple media and to express the basic materiality of art objects.

An approach to art - principally sculptural - which stressed anonymous, industrial manufacturing and austere, geometric forms. Led by articulate spokesmen such as Donald Judd, the movement became a highly self-conscious attempt to overturn previous conventions of sculpture, to create objects with simple, indivisible forms, and to reject the appearance of art.

/movement/minimalism/

This movement is comprised of many tendencies that all focused on expanding the boundaries of current art and developed simultaneously across the world in the United States, Latin America, and Europe.

Following the avant-garde ethos of Cubism, Dada, Abstract Expressionism, and Pop Art the movement claimed all art is conceptual, prizing ideas and communication over material or visual components. Influenced by the simplicity of Minimalism, artists rejected conventions of sculpture and painting to reduce the actual material to a minimum 鈥� the "dematerialization" of art. Many eschewed objects altogether, others created a diverse output from maps and found objects to texts and photographs, performances, happenings, and ephemera. It is also a critique of the institution of art 鈥� raising the idea that aesthetics, expression, skill, and marketability were irrelevant.

/movement/conceptual-art/

The Italian Arte Povera movement was an artist collective taking a radical stance against all established modes of artistic taste, to promote ideas of a new art, free from convention.

In their common stance against a market-driven art world and reasserting the importance of personal expression, artists such as Alighiero Boetti, Jannis Kounellis, Mario Merz, and Michelangelo Pistoletto practiced painting, embroidery, conceptual art, and performance, using simple, artisanal materials in contrast to consumer culture. Such "poor" materials borrowed from and referred to simple objects from everyday life.

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Alighiero Boetti

This broad movement describes a collection of reactions against the abstraction, austerity, and formalism of the Minimalist style.

Post-Minimalism extended the ideas of the previous movement: process artists pushed further its interests in the materiality of sculpture; developed large, earth-based works; and feminist artists reintroduced qualities of emotional expression. Some practitioners shared in the Minimalist interest in abstraction and materiality, yet rejected industrial materials in favor of more expressive sculptures that convey personal emotions.

/movement/post-minimalism/

Vito Acconci

Although performance has been a part of avant-garde art through many styles, in the post-modernist world Performance art was picked up and gained currency by Feminist artists and other conceptual creators.

Performance art is presented "live," by the artist, with collaborators or performers. Disenchanted with conventional media such as painting and sculpture, artists sought to challenge and rejuvenate visual art, access new audiences and test new ideas using elements from work, sport, ritual, and dance. The movement extended the 鈥渁ction painting鈥� of the Abstract Expressionists - the object no longer paint on canvas but something else, often the artist鈥檚 own body. This led to the use of the body to make personal statement as seen in Feminist Art and anti-war activism.

/movement/performance-art/

Marina Abramovic

Neo-Expressionism started with Georg Baselitz鈥檚 return to painting as an avant-garde art form. Many artists followed by creating challenging works after many years of claims that painting is 鈥渄ead鈥�.

Disaffected with the intellectualism of Minimalism and Conceptual Art, it reasserted the creative power of the individual and the sensuousness of painting with textural, expressive brushwork and intense colors 鈥� a return from stylistically cool, sparseness. This took place simultaneously throughout the world and was marked by interests in primitivism, graffiti, and the revival of narrative. The works of Julian Schnabel, Francesco Clemente, and Jean-Michel Basquiat are marked by a sense of the mythological, cultural, historical, nationalist, and erotic.

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Julian Schnabel

Known for their gritty urban subject matter, dark palette, and gestural brushwork, this loosely knit group of artists based in New York City played a crucial role in the 1913 Armory Show that introduced American audiences to European modernism.

In opposition to the American Impressionism that had preceded it, the Ashcan school captured modern life in New York鈥檚 immigrant and working-class communities. They painted from direct experience, in scenes of people walking in parks, bars, and vaudeville reviews. Their vigorous paint application and the immediacy of execution, gave their canvases a sketchy, lively quality. Artists such as Robert Henri, George Lucs, and John Sloan sought new forms of Realism to describe the rapid and great changes in urban life, commercial culture, and codes of social contact.

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Robert Henri

George Luks

Born in the depression, a time of racial conflict, rising fascism, and political idealism after the Mexican and Russian revolutions, the movement explored both the artistic and political possibilities of art.

The Social Realists鈥� gritty subject matter often used the human figure to offer social critique. The aim was to use art as a weapon against capitalist exploitation and fascism. Works by Aaron Douglas and Isamu Noguchi show the human impact of social issues, in joblessness, poverty, and political injustice. Many of these artists were employed by the government Works Progress Administration (WPA), and took commissions for public buildings, using new platforms to raise awareness of social issues.

/movement/social-realism/

Philip Evergood

This Dutch movement arose in response to World War I, and conceived of art as a social and spiritual redemption, a universal visual language for a new world.

Reacting against the over-decorative Art Deco style, De Stijl artists eliminated representation in an abstract, pared-down aesthetic which worked in a visual language of geometric forms and primary colors. Piet Mondrian was influenced by the mystic ideas of Theosophy, while Theo van Doesburg鈥檚 journal, De Stijl advocated the fusion of form and function as the ultimate style -encompassing painting and sculpture, industrial design, architecture and typography, influencing the Bauhaus and the International Style.

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Vilmos Huzcar

The movement originated from the rise of environmental awareness and the Conceptual and Minimalist ideas in postmodernism.

The movement introduced site-specificity to the art world using natural spaces and materials such as stones, water, gravel, and soil. Influenced by prehistoric artworks such as Stonehenge, structures such as Robert Smithson鈥檚 Spiral Jetty (1970) explored unprecedented scale and exposed art to the elements identifying new concepts such as natural decay. Earth Art reflects the monumentality and simplicity of Minimalist objects, blended with Post-Minimalist tendencies such as process, installation, and performance art. In rejecting the commoditization of art, the movement challenged the idea of art being owned or displayed for profit in institutions, museums, or private homes.

/movement/earth-art/

The movement emerged in the late 1960s amidst anti-war protests and a growing call for equality in demands for civil, gay, and women鈥檚 rights.

Feminist artists sought to transform stereotypes, drawing from Conceptual art to make the viewer question the social and political landscape, and thus incite change. They adopted non-traditional media, using fabric, fiber, performance, video, and alternative venues to revolutionize thinking about female art and artists. By promoting the visibility of female artists, artists such as Judy Chicago and Barbara Kruger provided new perspectives to the male-dominated established precedents in the visual arts.

/movement/feminist-art/

The movement covers a loose international group of artists, poets, and musicians, demanding social and economic change in the art world.

The goal was to destroy any boundary between art and life, reinvigorating Futurist and Dadaist ideas on art as life, and art for the masses. In the tradition of Marcel Duchamp, Fluxus used humor to mock the elitist world of "high art," but underneath lay a serious desire to change what, and who, constituted "art." Fusing Conceptual art, Minimalism, music, and poetry their aim to bring art to all involved the viewer, and in works such as Yoko Ono鈥檚 Cut Piece (1964-1966) participation and chance are vital components, encapsulating the belief in art as a creative process, not an end product.

/movement/fluxus/

Ben Vautier

Alison Knowles

The movement emerged in post-World War II Japan, in a new era of freedom, replacing the totalitarian regime which had stifled individual expression.

The artists rejected representational art and put concept over form, their art making was performance, involving painting, installation, and theatrical events. The artists connected matter (paint, chemicals, tar, mud, water) and action (breaking, exploding, tearing, dripping). Conceptual in nature, viewers could imagine multiple potential meanings. Gutai鈥檚 artists used their new creative freedom to network internationally, collaborating with artists in Europe and America, including in Allan Kaprow's Happenings.

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Kazuo Shiraga

Atsuko Tanaka

Shozo Shimamoto

Artists turned to performance as a reaction against the aesthetics of Abstract Expressionism and the social changes of the late 1950s.

Happenings, led by Allan Kaprow, drew from Futurist and Dadaist ideas of painting, poetry, music, dance, and theatre as a live action requiring the participation of the audience. Happenings could be big or small, but each audience member had a unique encounter as part of the performance and was thus involved in the art making process. As there was no art 鈥榦bject鈥� these performances challenged conventional views of art. Sound was a key component, building on the work of John Cage, with important participants such as Robert Rauschenberg and George Brecht that created Happenings throughout the 1960s. However, by the early 1970s the label had been consumed by the term Performance Art.

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Robert Whitman

Dick Higgins

Viennese Actionists believed Austria was suppressing memories of war atrocities by the Nazis and wanted to face this trauma head-on via art.

Theirs was a violent, explicit, performance art collaboratively staged, filmed, and photographed. Vienna was the home of Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis, and in their 鈥渁ctions鈥� they wanted to use performance to exorcise post-war trauma. Performances might involve blood, urine, milk, entrails, sex, nudity, mock-crucifixions or disemboweled animal cadavers. They also involved breaking the law, and indeed Hermann Nitsch was imprisoned for masturbating and enacting violent sexual scenes in public settings.

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Gunter Brus

Otto Muehl

Rudolf Schwarzkogler

Influenced by advertising, television and the increasingly image-led mass media, this loose affiliation of artists explored contemporary photo and video images.

Though many artists had been formally trained in painting and sculpture, The Pictures artists worked in unorthodox ways - examining composition in image production via photography and video. Artists such as Cindy Sherman and Richard Prince composed images with conceptual frameworks which enabled them to explore icons and stereotypes while reworking images. Their use of appropriation and montage blurred the lines between high art and popular images. This questioning of the relationship between originals and reproductions put the artists at the heart of the postmodern debate on authenticity and authorship.

/movement/the-pictures-generation/

Cindy Sherman

Barbara Kruger

Richard Prince

This loosely-affiliated group of painters, sculptors, installation, and video artists met while studying Fine Art at London鈥檚 Goldsmith鈥檚 College, mounting one of the most shocking exhibits of the late twentieth century: Freeze (1988).

The Young Brits often used shock tactics with violent and pornographic images, achieving instant notoriety. Media savvy, the YBAs focus on spectacle was emphasized by the purchase and promotion of their works by the advertising mogul Charles Saatchi. Their Sensation exhibition (1997) featured Damien Hirst鈥檚 infamous shark, a Marcus Harvey portrait of a child murderer using children's handprints, and Chris Ofili's Portrait of the Virgin Mary using elephant dung, provoking international debates on the role and responsibility of art.

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Gavin Turk